IGE ANTI-HMW-MAA Antibody

ABSTRACT

In one aspect, there is provided an antibody or a functional fragment thereof, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof is capable of binding specifically to high molecular weight melanoma associated antigen (HMW-MAA), and binding to an Fcε receptor.

FIELD

The present invention relates to the field of antibodies, and in particular to therapeutic antibodies for the treatment of cancer, especially skin cancer.

BACKGROUND

Malignant melanoma is an immunogenic, highly aggressive and most lethal form of skin cancer. It is the most common cancer in the 17-34 years age group but affects people of all ages, and therefore has a significant socioeconomic impact for patients and their families Rates of melanoma have been rising by 5% per year, faster than any other cancer in the UK [1]. Although diagnosed skin lesions can be initially excised by surgical intervention, skin and distal metastases unfortunately occur in 20% of patients originally treated with local disease. Patients with lymph node and other distal metastases have dismal prognosis, and this is partly due to lack of effective treatments for this cohort.

Melanoma has presented major challenges to numerous targeted therapy efforts and therefore effective treatments are urgently needed for patients with this disease. The recent approval of the monoclonal antibody ipilimumab (targeting the CTLA4 blockade to enhance T cell activation) for the treatment of melanoma lends merit to the notion that activating immune responses with antibodies may have therapeutic significance and has renewed interest in the field of antibody therapies for the treatment of challenging tumours such as melanoma [2-4]. Despite the partial success and promise of various immunotherapeutic strategies, including antibodies, there are presently no promising antibody therapies that directly target antigens on the surface of melanoma cells.

Therapeutic antibodies now complement conventional treatments for a number of malignant diseases, but almost all agents currently developed rely on only one of the nine human antibody classes, namely IgG₁, the most abundant antibody class in the blood [5]. The human immune system naturally deploys nine antibody classes and subclasses (IgM, IgD, IgG1-4, IgA1, IgA2 and IgE) to perform immune surveillance and to mediate destruction of pathogens in different anatomical compartments. Yet only IgG (most often IgG1) has been applied in immunotherapy of cancers.

One reason may be that IgG antibodies (particularly IgG1), constitute the largest fraction of circulating antibodies in human blood. The choice of antibody class is also based on pioneering work in the late 1980s, comparing a panel of chimaeric antibodies of the same specificity, each with Fc regions belonging to one of the nine antibody classes and subclasses [6]. Antibodies were evaluated for their ability to bind complement and their potency to mediate haemolysis and cytotoxicity of antigen-expressing target cells in the presence of complement. IgG1 in combination with human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) was the most effective IgG subclass in complement-dependent cell killing in vitro, while the IgA and IgE antibodies were completely inert.

Subsequent clinical trials with antibodies recognising the B cell marker CD20 supported the inference that IgG1 would be the subclass best suited for immunotherapy of patients with B cell malignancies such as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma [7]. Since those studies, comparisons of anti-tumour effects by different antibody classes have been confined to IgG and IgM in both murine models and patients with lymphoid malignancies, while IgA has been shown to mediate ADCC in vitro and in vivo in mouse models of lymphoma [8-12]. IgA and IgE antibodies, on the other hand, have never been tested in cancer patients.

Complement-mediated tumour cell death is now known to be only one of several mechanisms by which antibodies may mediate tumour growth restriction [13]. Known mechanisms include engaging immune effector molecules through their Fc regions to induce immune cell mediated destruction of targeted cells by antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) and phagocytosis (ADCP). Antibodies can also act directly on tumour cells to inhibit growth signalling pathways, induce apoptosis, restrict proliferation and cell differentiation of tumour cells, or block tumour cell adhesion and migration. Some antibodies are developed to recognise targets associated with tumour-associated vasculature in order to starve tumours of vital nutrients delivered through blood supply, while others attack immune regulatory targets (e.g. CTLA-4 and PD-1R) to enhance T cell activation and overcome immunosuppressive elements of the immune response [14, 15, 3]. Extensive efforts have also focused on designing antibody conjugates to deliver toxic payloads in the form of drug-activating enzymes, cytokines or radionuclides to tumours [16]. Multiple antibody engineering approaches are also being devised to improve validated therapeutics, such as trastuzumab, with the principal aims to optimise antigen specificity/affinity and effector functions of IgG antibodies [17].

Accordingly, there is still a need for improved therapeutic antibodies, particularly for the treatment of neoplastic diseases such as skin cancer. In particular, there is a need for antibodies having improved effector functions compared to IgG antibodies, which may lead to an improved clinical outcome in the treatment of cancer, especially skin cancer.

SUMMARY

Accordingly, in one aspect the present invention provides an antibody or a functional fragment thereof, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof is capable of binding specifically to high molecular weight melanoma associated antigen (HMW-MAA), and binding to an Fcε receptor.

In one embodiment, the antibody is of the isotype IgE. For instance, the antibody or functional fragment thereof may comprise one or more heavy chain constant domains selected from Cε1, Cε2, Cε3 and Cε4. Preferably the antibody comprises an c heavy chain. Thus in a further aspect, the present invention provides an immunoglobulin E antibody which binds specifically to the tumour-associated antigen high molecular weight melanoma associated antigen (HMW-MAA).

In another embodiment, the antibody comprises one or more variable regions capable of binding specifically to HMW-MAA, and one or more constant regions capable of binding to an Fcε receptor. In specific embodiments, the antibody is a chimaeric antibody, a humanized antibody or a human antibody.

In one embodiment, the antibody comprises one or more variable domains derived from an immunoglobulin isotype other than IgE (e.g. IgA, IgD, IgG or IgM, for example IgG1), and one or more constant domains derived from an immunoglobulin of the isotype IgE.

In another embodiment, the antibody comprises one or more complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) derived from an immunoglobulin isotype other than IgE (e.g. IgA, IgD, IgG or IgM, for example IgG1), and one or more framework regions and/or constant domains derived from an immunoglobulin of the isotype IgE.

For instance, the antibody may comprise one or more variable domains or complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) derived from an IgG, e.g. IgG1.

In one embodiment, the variable domains or CDRs are derived from a first mammalian species, and the framework regions and/or constant domains are derived from a second mammalian species different to the first mammalian species. In one embodiment, the variable regions or CDRs are derived from a non-human species, e.g. a mouse. In an alternative embodiment, the variable regions or CDRs are derived from a human sequence. Preferably the framework regions and/or constant domains are human.

In a further aspect, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising an antibody or functional fragment thereof as defined above, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

In another aspect, the invention provides a method of treating a subject suffering from cancer, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of an antibody or functional fragment thereof or a pharmaceutical composition as defined above.

In another aspect, there is provided use of an antibody or functional fragment thereof or a pharmaceutical composition as above, for the preparation of a medicament for the treatment of cancer.

In another aspect, there is provided an antibody or functional fragment thereof or a pharmaceutical composition as defined above, for use in the treatment of cancer.

Preferably the cancer expresses HMW-MAA. In specific embodiments, the cancer may be skin cancer, breast cancer, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, prostate cancer, ovarian cancer, colon cancer, glioma, stomach cancer or pancreatic cancer. In a preferred embodiment the cancer is malignant melanoma.

In another aspect, the invention provides a nucleic acid molecule which encodes the antibody or functional fragment thereof as defined above. Also provided is an expression vector comprising the nucleic acid molecule operably linked to a promoter, and a host cell transformed with the expression vector.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1: A: Schematic representations of the heavy and light chain vector design for expression cloning of IgG and IgE antibodies. B: Schematic representation of the design of IgE and IgG1 antibodies of the same specificity: the variable heavy and light chains of IgG₁ (left, regions indicated with stars) were inserted into the epsilon heavy chain regions of IgE and the epsilon heavy chain was combined with the kappa light chain to produce the corresponding IgE antibody (right). Glycosylation sites are depicted by black circles.

FIG. 2: Characterisation of the engineered HMW-MAA melanoma antigen-specific IgE (top panel) and IgG₁ (bottom panel) antibodies. Native (left) and reduced (middle) SDS polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis of HMW-MAA IgE (top) and IgG₁ (bottom) protein products, compared with the previously-characterised chimaeric antibodies MOv18 IgE and IgG₁. Right: Elution profiles of the affinity column-purified antibodies by size-exclusion chromatography analysis.

FIG. 3: Flow cytometric histograms showing HMW-MAA-IgE binding. A: Binding of chimaeric IgE to A375 melanoma tumour cells (left) but not to melanocytes (right). B: Binding of IgE to U937 monocytic cells (left) and to primary melanocytes (right). Antibody binding was detected using a goat anti-human IgE-FITC antibody. C: Flow cytometric histograms showing HMW-MAA-IgG binding to A375 melanoma tumour cells (left) and U937 monocytic cells (right). Antibody binding was detected using a goat anti-human IgG-FITC antibody.

FIG. 4: Binding specificity of HMW-MAA-IgE and IgG₁ antibodies to A375 melanoma tumour cells vs. isotype control hapten specific IgE and IgG1 antibodies. Antibodies bound to tumour cells were detected using a goat anti-human IgE-FITC antibody. Images were captured using a 63× oil objective. Scale bar=20 μm.

FIG. 5: HMW-MAA IgE stimulates functional degranulation detected (as measured by β-hexosaminidase release) of RBL SX-38 cells after cross-linking with a polyclonal anti-human IgE antibody (A). MTS cell viability assays explored potential direct effects of the anti-HMW-MAA antibodies on melanoma tumour cell proliferation (B). Effects on proliferation were compared with those of trastuzumab (IgG₁), which is known to reduce tumour cell proliferation.

FIG. 6: ADCC/ADCP assays confirmed that anti-HMW-MAA IgG₁ (left) and IgE (right) mediated significant levels of ADCP and ADCC respectively of A375 tumour cells by monocytic cells (n=5; *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001; ns: p>0.05).

FIG. 7: Immunohistochemical analysis of subcutaneous tumour model of A375 metastatic melanoma cells, labelling for expression of the melanoma marker HMW-MAA (left) and mouse IgG isotype control antibody (right). Images were captured using a 10× objective.

FIG. 8: Testing of engineered antibodies using the subcutaneous melanoma tumour model. A: Monitoring subcutaneous growth (mm³) of melanoma tumours at different time points following tumour challenge (n=7). B: Measurements of tumour mass (mg) at the end of the study (30 days) for each treatment group.

FIG. 9: IgE and human immune cells are recruited in melanoma lesions of mice treated with melanoma antigen specific IgE, but not in lesions from animals treated with a non-specific chimaeric antibody.

FIG. 10: Amino acid sequence of human HMW-MAA (SEQ ID NO:1).

FIG. 11: Nucleic acid sequence encoding human HMW-MAA (SEQ ID NO:2).

FIG. 12: Nucleic acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:3) encoding the heavy chain variable region (V_(H)) of scFv (225.28S), as previously published in Neri D, et al. (1996), Recombinant anti-human melanoma antibodies are versatile molecules, J Invest Dermatol 107: 164-170.

FIG. 13: Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:4) of the heavy chain variable region (V_(H)) of scFv (225.28S), as previously published in Neri D, et al. (1996) supra.

FIG. 14: Nucleic acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:5) encoding the light chain variable region (V_(K)) of scFv (225.28S), as previously published in Neri D, et al. (1996) supra.

FIG. 15: Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:6) of the light chain variable region (V_(K)) of scFv (225.28S), as previously published in Neri D, et al. (1996) supra.

FIG. 16: Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:7) of the heavy (ε) chain of chimeric anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibody, as described in the Example below. Bold: Variable region (derived from scFv (225.28S). Underline: Constant region (human ε constant region).

FIG. 17: Amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:8) of the light (κ) chain of chimeric anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibody, as described in the Example below. Bold: Variable region (derived from scFv (225.28S). Underline: Constant region (human κ constant region).

FIG. 18: Nucleic acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:9) encoding the heavy (ε) chain of chimeric anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibody, as described in the Example below. Bold: Variable region-encoding part (derived from scFv (225.28S). Underline: Constant region-encoding part (human ε constant region).

FIG. 19: Nucleic acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:10) encoding the light (κ) chain of chimeric anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibody, as described in the Example below. Bold: Variable region-encoding part (derived from scFv (225.28S). Underline: Constant region-encoding part (human κ constant region).

FIG. 20: Nucleic acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:11) comprising human codon optimisations, encoding the heavy chain variable region (V_(H)) of chimeric anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibody, as described in the Example below.

FIG. 21: Nucleic acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:12) comprising human codon optimisations, encoding the light chain variable region (V_(K)) of chimeric anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibody, as described in the Example below.

FIG. 22: Nucleic acid sequences encoding human immunoglobulin heavy (ε) chain constant domains, as described in NCBI database accession number L00022.1. A: CH_((ε))1 (SEQ ID NO:13); B: CH_((ε))2 (SEQ ID NO:14); C: CH_((ε))3 (SEQ ID NO:15); D: CH_((ε))4 (SEQ ID NO:16).

FIG. 23: Nucleic acid sequence encoding human light (κ) chain constant domain (SEQ ID NO:17).

FIG. 24: Location of CDR and framework regions within the heavy chain variable domain (VH) present in mAb 225.28s and chimeric anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibodies.

FIG. 25: Location of CDR and framework regions within the light chain variable domain (VL) present in mAb 225.28s and chimeric anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibodies.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION High Molecular Weight Melanoma-Associated Antigen (HMW-MAA)

Antibodies or fragments thereof according to embodiments of the present invention bind to high molecular weight melanoma-associated antigen (HMW-MAA).

HMW-MAA is also known as Melanoma-Associated Chondroitin Sulfate Proteoglycan (MCSP), “human melanoma proteoglycan” (HMP), “melanoma-associated proteoglycan antigen” (MPG) and “melanoma chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan” (mel-CSPG). HMW-MAA is also known as CSPG4. HMW-MAA is a human melanoma-associated chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan that plays a role in stabilizing cell-substratum interactions during early events of melanoma cell spreading on endothelial basement membranes.

Thus HMW-MAA represents an integral membrane chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan expressed by human malignant melanoma cells. In vivo, it is present in a molecule that consists of two noncovalently associated glycopolypeptides. One has an apparent molecular weight of 280K, and the other has an apparent molecular weight greater than 440K.

HMW-MAA is synthesized and expressed by human melanoma cells (Spiro, R. C. et al. F. Biol. Chem. 264:1779 (1989); Esko, J. D., et al., Science 241:1092, 1988). Proteoglycans are glycoproteins with glycosaminoglycan (GAG) polysaccharide chains covalently attached to the serine residue in their core. The HMW-MAA core protein is initially translated as a precursor with a molecular mass of 240K with asparagine N-linked oligosaccharides of the high mannose type.

In one embodiment, HMW-MAA has an amino acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:1. The amino acid sequence of HMW-MAA is also disclosed in NCBI database accession no. NP_(—)001888.2 and SwissProt entry no. Q6UVK1.

In one embodiment, HMW-MAA is encoded by a nucleic acid sequence as shown in SEQ ID NO:2. The nucleic acid sequence encoding HMW-MAA is also disclosed in NCBI database accession no. NM_(—)001897.4.

The antibodies described herein bind specifically to HMW-MAA. For instance, the antibodies may bind (e.g. via the antigen-specific binding site(s) or paratopes of the antibody, which are present within the variable regions) to an antigenic epitope present within the HMW-MAA protein. Typically the antibody may bind to HMW-MAA with high affinity, e.g. with a dissociation constant (K_(d)) of less than 1 μM, preferably less than 1 nM. Preferably the antibody specifically binds to HMW-MAA and does not significantly bind unrelated antigens.

Binding affinity of the antibody for HMW-MAA may be calculated using standard methods, e.g. based on the Scatchard method as described by Frankel et al., Mol. Immunol., 16:101-106, 1979. Binding affinity may also be measured by calculating the antigen/antibody dissociation rate, by a competition radioimmunoassay, by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or by Surface Plasmon Resonance.

Antibodies

Antibodies are polypeptide ligands comprising at least a light chain or heavy chain immunoglobulin variable region which specifically recognizes and specifically binds an epitope of an antigen, such as HMW-MAA, or a fragment thereof. Antibodies are typically composed of a heavy and a light chain, each of which has a variable region, termed the variable heavy (VH) region and the variable light (VL) region. Together, the VH region and the VL region are responsible for binding the antigen recognized by the antibody.

Antibodies include intact immunoglobulins and the variants and portions of antibodies well known in the art, provided that such fragments are capable of binding an Fcε receptor. Antibodies also include genetically engineered forms such as chimaeric, humanized (for example, humanized antibodies with murine sequences contained in the variable regions) or human antibodies, heteroconjugate antibodies (such as, bispecific antibodies), e.g. as described in Kuby, J., Immunology, 3rd Ed., W.H. Freeman & Co., New York, 1997.

Typically, a naturally occurring immunoglobulin has heavy (H) chains and light (L) chains interconnected by disulfide bonds. There are two types of light chain, lambda (λ) and kappa (κ). There are nine main isotypes or classes which determine the functional activity of an antibody molecule: IgA1-2, IgD, IgE, IgG1-4 and IgM, corresponding to the heavy chain types α, δ, ε, γ, and μ. Thus, the type of heavy chain present defines the class of antibody. Distinct heavy chains differ in size and composition; α and γ contain approximately 450 amino acids, while μ and ε have approximately 550 amino acids. The differences in the constant regions of each heavy chain type account for the different effector functions of each antibody isotype, by virtue of their selective binding to particular types of receptor (e.g. Fc receptors). Accordingly, in embodiments of the present invention the antibody preferably comprises an epsilon (ε) heavy chain, i.e. the antibody is of the isotype IgE which binds to Fcε receptors.

Each heavy and light chain contains a constant region and a variable region, (the regions are also known as “domains”). In combination, the heavy and the light chain variable regions specifically bind the antigen. Light and heavy chain variable regions contain a “framework” region interrupted by three hypervariable regions, also called “complementarity-determining regions” or “CDRs.” The extent of the framework region and CDRs has been defined (see, Kabat et al., Sequences of Proteins of Immunological Interest, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1991). The Kabat database is now maintained online. The sequences of the framework regions of different light or heavy chains are relatively conserved within a species, such as humans. The framework region of an antibody, that is the combined framework regions of the constituent light and heavy chains, serves to position and align the CDRs in three-dimensional space.

The CDRs are primarily responsible for binding to an epitope of an antigen. The CDRs of each chain are typically referred to as CDR1, CDR2, and CDR3, numbered sequentially starting from the N-terminus, and are also typically identified by the chain in which the particular CDR is located. Thus, a VH CDR3 is located in the variable domain of the heavy chain of the antibody in which it is found, whereas a VL CDR1 is the CDR1 from the variable domain of the light chain of the antibody in which it is found.

Antibodies which bind HMW-MAA may have a specific VH region and the VL region sequence, and thus specific CDR sequences. Antibodies with different specificities (i.e. different combining sites for different antigens) have different CDRs. Although it is the CDRs that vary from antibody to antibody, only a limited number of amino acid positions within the CDRs are directly involved in antigen binding. These positions within the CDRs are called specificity determining residues (SDRs). Thus in embodiments of the present invention, the antibody comprises at least one, two, three, four, five or six CDRs (e.g. 3 heavy chain CDRs and/or 3 light chain CDRs) or at least one variable domain (e.g. a VH or VL domain) derived from an antibody which binds to HMW-MAA.

References to “VH” refer to the variable region of an immunoglobulin heavy chain. References to “VL” refer to the variable region of an immunoglobulin light chain.

A “monoclonal antibody” is an antibody produced by a single clone of B-lymphocytes or by a cell into which the light and heavy chain genes of a single antibody have been transfected. Monoclonal antibodies are produced by methods known to those of skill in the art, for instance by making hybrid antibody-forming cells from a fusion of myeloma cells with immune spleen cells. Monoclonal antibodies include humanized monoclonal antibodies.

A “chimaeric antibody” comprises sequences derived from two different antibodies, which are typically derived from different species. For example, chimaeric antibodies may include human and murine antibody domains, e.g. human constant regions and murine variable regions (e.g. from a murine antibody that specifically binds HMW-MAA).

Chimaeric antibodies are typically constructed by fusing variable and constant regions, e.g. by genetic engineering, from light and heavy chain immunoglobulin genes belonging to different species. For example, the variable segments of the genes from a mouse monoclonal antibody can be joined to human constant segments, such as kappa and epsilon. In one example, a therapeutic chimaeric antibody is thus a hybrid protein composed of the variable or antigen-binding domain from a mouse antibody and the constant or effector domain from a human antibody, e.g. an Fc (effector) domain from a human IgE antibody, although other mammalian species can be used, or the variable region can be produced by molecular techniques. Methods of making chimaeric antibodies are well known in the art, e.g., see U.S. Pat. No. 5,807,715.

A “humanized” antibody is an antibody including human framework regions and one or more CDRs from a non-human (for example a mouse, rat, or synthetic) antibody. The non-human immunoglobulin providing the CDRs is termed a “donor”, and the human immunoglobulin providing the framework is termed an “acceptor”. In one embodiment, all the CDRs are from the donor immunoglobulin in a humanized immunoglobulin. The constant regions are typically substantially identical to human immunoglobulin constant regions, i.e., at least about 85-90%, such as about 95% or more identical. Hence, all parts of a humanized immunoglobulin, except the CDRs, are substantially identical to corresponding parts of natural human immunoglobulin sequences.

A humanized antibody typically comprises a humanized immunoglobulin light chain and a humanized immunoglobulin heavy chain. A humanized antibody typically binds to the same antigen as the donor antibody that provides the CDRs. The acceptor framework of a humanized immunoglobulin or antibody may have a limited number of substitutions by amino acids taken from the donor framework. Humanized or other monoclonal antibodies can have additional conservative amino acid substitutions which have substantially no effect on antigen binding or other immunoglobulin functions.

Humanized immunoglobulins can be constructed by means of genetic engineering (see for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,585,089). Typically humanized monoclonal antibodies are produced by transferring donor antibody complementarity determining regions from heavy and light variable chains of a mouse immunoglobulin into a human variable domain, and then substituting human residues in the framework regions of the donor counterparts. The use of antibody components derived from humanized monoclonal antibodies obviates potential problems associated with the immunogenicity of the constant regions of the donor antibody. Techniques for producing humanized monoclonal antibodies are described, for example, by Jones et al., Nature 321:522, 1986; Riechmann et al., Nature 332:323, 1988; Verhoeyen et al., Science 239:1534, 1988; Carter et al., Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:4285, 1992; Sandhu, Crit. Rev. Biotech. 12:437, 1992; and Singer et al., J. Immunol. 150:2844, 1993.

A “human” antibody (also called a “fully human” antibody) is an antibody that includes human framework regions and all of the CDRs from a human immunoglobulin. In one example, the framework and the CDRs are from the same originating human heavy and/or light chain amino acid sequence. However, frameworks from one human antibody can be engineered to include CDRs from a different human antibody.

In embodiments of the present invention, the antibodies may be monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies, including chimaeric, humanized or fully human antibodies.

Antibodies which Bind to HMW-MAA

In some embodiments, the antibody binds specifically to HMW-MAA to form an immune complex. Typically the antibody may comprise an antigen-binding region (e.g. one or more variable regions, or one to 6 CDRs) derived from an antibody which is known to bind. HMW-MAA, preferably human HMW-MAA.

Antibodies which bind to HMW-MAA are disclosed, for example, in WO 89/11296. Such antibodies include mouse monoclonal antibodies 225.28s; 763.74; VF1-TP41.2; VT80.112; 653.25; 763.74; TP61.5 and T8-203 (see WO 89/11296; Drake et al., Cancer Immunol. Immunother. DOI 10: 1007, s00262-008-0567-5, 2008; Goto et al., Clin. Cancer Res. 14: 3401-3407, 2008).

In one specific embodiment, the antibody comprises a variable region (e.g. a heavy chain variable domain (VH) and/or a light chain variable domain (VL)) or at least one, two, three, four, five or six CDRs (e.g. 3 heavy chain CDRs or 3 light chain CDRs) from mouse monoclonal antibody (mAb) 225.28s. The amino acid sequences of the VH and VL domains of mAb 225.28s are shown in SEQ ID NO:4 and SEQ ID NO:6, respectively, and the corresponding nucleic acid sequences which encode these domains are shown in SEQ ID NO:3 and SEQ ID NO:5 respectively. The heavy and light chain CDR sequences from mAb 225.28s are shown in FIGS. 24 and 25 respectively, and in SEQ ID NO:s 18 to 20 and 21 to 23 respectively. In another embodiment, the antibody is a chimaeric, humanized or fully human antibody that specifically binds the epitope bound by mAb 225.28s.

In another specific example, the antibody comprises a variable region (e.g. a heavy chain variable domain and/or a light chain variable domain) or at least one, two, three, four, five or six CDRs (e.g. 3 heavy chain CDRs or 3 light chain CDRs) from mAb 763.74, or is a chimaeric, humanized or fully human antibody that specifically binds the epitope bound by mAb 763.74.

In another example, the antibody comprises a variable region (e.g. a heavy chain variable domain and/or a light chain variable domain) or at least one, two, three, four, five or six CDRs (e.g. 3 heavy chain CDRs or 3 light chain CDRs) derived from a human B cell clone that recognises an epitope found on HMW-MAA, preferably human HMW-MAA.

In one embodiment, the antibody comprises one or more human constant regions, e.g. one or more human heavy chain constant domains (e.g. E constant domains) and/or a human light chain (e.g. κ or λ) constant domain. A nucleotide sequence encoding a human light (κ) chain constant domain is shown in SEQ ID NO:17. More preferably the antibody comprises one or more human framework regions within the VH and/or VL domains.

In one embodiment, the sequence of the humanized immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region framework can be at least about 65% identical to the sequence of the donor immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region framework. Thus, the sequence of the humanized immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region framework can be at least about 75%, at least about 85%, at least about 99% or at least about 95%, identical to the sequence of the donor immunoglobulin heavy chain variable region framework. Human framework regions, and mutations that can be made in a humanized antibody framework regions, are known in the art (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,585,089).

Fully human antibodies and fragments thereof which bind to HMW-MAA are disclosed in WO 2010/045495, e.g. an scFv fragment isolated from a semi-synthetic phage display scFv antibody library and designated C21. In some embodiments, the antibody may comprise a heavy chain variable domain and/or a light chain variable domain) or at least one, two, three, four, five or six CDRs (e.g. 3 heavy chain CDRs or 3 light chain CDRs) from scFv C21.

Further antibodies against HMW-MAA sequences may also be generated by well-established methods, and at least the variable regions or CDRs from such antibodies may be used in the antibodies of the present invention (e.g. the generated antibodies may be used to donate CDR or variable region sequences into IgE acceptor sequences). Methods for synthesizing polypeptides and immunizing a host animal are well known in the art. Typically, the host animal (e.g. a mouse) is inoculated intraperitoneally with an amount of immunogen (i.e. HMW-MAA or a polypeptide comprising an immunogenic fragment thereof), and (in the case of monoclonal antibody production) hybridomas prepared from its lymphocytes and immortalized myeloma cells using the general somatic cell hybridization technique of Kohler, B. and Milstein, C. (1975) Nature 25 6:495-497.

Hybridomas that produce suitable antibodies may be grown in vitro or in vivo using known procedures. Monoclonal antibodies may be isolated from the culture media or body fluids, by conventional immunoglobulin purification procedures such as ammonium sulfate precipitation, gel electrophoresis, dialysis, chromatography, and ultrafiltration, if desired. Undesired activity if present, can be removed, for example, by running the preparation over adsorbents made of the immunogen attached to a solid phase and eluting or releasing the desired antibodies off the immunogen. If desired, the antibody (monoclonal or polyclonal) of interest may be sequenced and the polynucleotide sequence may then be cloned into a vector for expression or propagation. The sequence encoding the antibody may be maintained in a vector in a host cell and the host cell can then be expanded and frozen for future use.

Phage display technology, for instance as described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,565,332 and other published documents, may be used to select and produce human antibodies and antibody fragments in vitro, from immunoglobulin variable (V) domain gene repertoires from unimmunized donors (e.g. from human subjects, including patients suffering from a relevant disorder). For example, existing antibody phage display libraries may be panned in parallel against a large collection of synthetic polypeptides. According to this technique, antibody V domain genes are cloned in-frame into either a major or minor coat protein gene of a filamentous bacteriophage, such as M13 or fd, and displayed as functional antibody fragments on the surface of the phage particle. Because the filamentous particle contains a single-stranded DNA copy of the phage genome, selections based on the functional properties of the antibody also result in selection of the gene encoding the antibody exhibiting those properties. Thus antibody sequences selected using phage display from human libraries may include human CDR or variable region sequences conferring specific binding to HMW-MAA, which may be used to provide fully human antibodies for use in the present invention.

Methods for deriving heavy and light chain sequences from human B cell and plasma cell clones are also well known in the art and typically performed using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques, examples of the methods are described in: Kuppers R, Methods Mol Biol. 2004; 271:225-38; Yoshioka M et al., BMC Biotechnol. 2011 Jul. 21; 11:75; Scheeren F A et al., PLoS ONE 2011, 6(4): e17189. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0017189; Wrammert J et al., Nature 2008 453, 667-671; Kurosawa N et al., BMC Biotechnol. 2011 Apr. 13; 11:39; Tiller et al., J Immunol Methods. 2008 Jan. 1; 329(1-2): 112-124. Thus antibody sequences selected using B cell clones may include human CDR or variable region sequences conferring specific binding to HMW-MAA, which may be used to provide fully human antibodies for use in the present invention.

Antibodies which Bind FcεReceptors

The antibodies described herein are also capable of binding to Fcε receptors, e.g. to the FcεRI and/or the FcεRII receptors. Preferably the antibody is at least capable of binding to FcεRI (i.e. the high affinity Fcε receptor) or is at least capable of binding to FcεRII (CD23, the low affinity Fcε receptor). Typically the antibodies are also capable of activating Fcε receptors, e.g. expressed on cells of the immune system, in order to initiate effector functions mediated by IgE.

The epsilon (ε) heavy chain is definitive for IgE antibodies, and comprises an N-terminal variable domain VH, and four constant domains Cε1-Cε4. As with other antibody isotypes, the variable domains confer antigen specificity and the constant domains recruit the isotype-specific effector functions.

IgE differs from the more abundant IgG isotypes, in that it is unable to fix complement and does not bind to the Fc receptors FcγRI, RII and RIII expressed on the surfaces of mononuclear cells, NK cells and neutrophils. However, IgE is capable of very specific interactions with the “high affinity” IgE receptor on a variety of immune cells such as mast cells, basophils, monocytes/macrophages, eosinophils (FcεRI, Ka. 10¹¹ M⁻¹), and with the “low affinity” receptor, Fcε RII (Ka. 10⁷ M⁻¹), also known as CD23, expressed on inflammatory and antigen presenting cells (e.g. monocytes/macrophages, platelets, dendritic cells, T and B lymphocytes.

The sites on IgE responsible for these receptor interactions have been mapped to peptide sequences on the Cε chain, and are distinct. The FcγRI site lies in a cleft created by residues between Gln 301 and Arg 376, and includes the junction between the Cε2 and Cε3 domains [Helm, B. et al. (1988) Nature 331, 180183]. The FcεRII binding site is located within Cε3 around residue Val 370 [Vercelli, D. et al. (1989) Nature 338, 649-651]. A major difference distinguishing the two receptors is that FcεRI binds monomeric Cε, whereas FcεRII will only bind dimerised Cε, i.e. the two Cε chains must be associated. Although IgE is glycosylated in vivo, this is not necessary for its binding to FcεRI and FcεRRII. Binding is in fact marginally stronger in the absence of glycosylation [Vercelli, D. et al. (1989) et. supra].

Thus binding to Fcε receptors and related effector functions are typically mediated by the heavy chain constant domains of the antibody, in particular by domains which together form the Fc region of the antibody. The antibodies described herein typically comprise at least a portion of an IgE antibody e.g. one or more constant domains derived from an IgE, preferably a human IgE. In particular embodiments, the antibodies comprise one or more domains (derived from IgE) selected from Cε1, Cε2, Cε3 and Cε4. In one embodiment, the antibody comprises at least Cε2 and Cε3, more preferably at least Cε2, Cε3 and Cε4, preferably wherein the domains are derived from a human IgE. In one embodiment, the antibody comprises an epsilon (ε) heavy chain, preferably a human ε heavy chain.

Nucleotide sequences encoding constant domains derived from human IgE, in particular Cε1, Cε2, Cε3 and Cε4 domains, are shown in SEQ ID NO:s 13, 14, 15 and 16 respectively and are disclosed in NCBI database accession no. L00022.1. The amino acid sequences corresponding to these nucleic acid sequences can be deduced by a skilled person according to the genetic code and are also indicated in NCBI database accession no. L00022.1. The full length heavy (ε) chain constant region amino acid sequence encoded by the combination of SEQ ID NO:s 13, 14, 15 and 16 is also shown in FIG. 16 (SEQ ID NO:7, underlined part). The amino acid sequences of other human and mammalian IgEs and domains thereof, including human Cε1, Cε2, Cε3 and Cε4 domains and human c heavy chain sequences, are known in the art and are available from public-accessible databases. For instance, databases of human immunoglobulin sequences are accessible from the International ImMunoGeneTics Information System (IMGT®) website at http://www.imgt.org. As one example, the sequences of various human IgE heavy (ε) chain alleles and their individual constant domains (Cε1-4) are accessible at http://www.imgtorg/IMGT_GENE-DB/GENElect?query=2+IGHE&species=Homo+sapiens.

Preferred Anti-HMW-MAA Antibodies which Bind Fcε Receptors

In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a VH domain encoded by a nucleotide sequence comprising at least a portion of SEQ ID NO: 3 or SEQ ID NO:11, e.g. comprising at least 50, 100, 200, 300 or 350 nucleotides of SEQ ID NO:3 or SEQ ID NO:11, or the full length of SEQ ID NO:3 or SEQ ID NO:11. In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a VH domain comprising at least a portion of the amino acid sequence as defined in SEQ ID NO:4, e.g. comprising at least 20, 30, 50 or 100 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:4 or the full length of SEQ ID NO:4.

In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a VL domain encoded by the nucleotide sequence comprising at least a portion of SEQ ID NO: 5 or SEQ ID NO:12, e.g. comprising at least 50, 100, 200, or 300 nucleotides of SEQ ID NO:5 or SEQ ID NO:12, or the full length of SEQ ID NO:5 or SEQ ID NO:12. In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody has a VL domain comprising at least a portion of the amino acid sequence as defined in SEQ ID NO:6, e.g. comprising at least 20, 30, 50 or 100 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:6 or the full length of SEQ ID NO:6.

In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a heavy chain encoded by a nucleotide sequence comprising at least a portion of SEQ ID NO: 9, e.g. comprising at least 100, 500, 1000 or 1500 nucleotides of SEQ ID NO:9 or the full length of SEQ ID NO:9. In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a heavy chain comprising at least a portion of the amino acid sequence as defined in SEQ ID NO:7, e.g. comprising at least 50, 100, 300 or 500 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:7 or the full length of SEQ ID NO:7.

In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a light chain encoded by a nucleotide sequence comprising at least a portion of SEQ ID NO: 10, e.g. comprising at least 50, 100, 300 or 500 nucleotides of SEQ ID NO:10 or the full length of SEQ ID NO:10. In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a light chain comprising at least a portion of the amino acid sequence as defined in SEQ ID NO:8, e.g. comprising at least 50, 100, 150 or 200 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:8.

In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises one or more heavy chain constant domains encoded by at least a portion of SEQ ID NO:13, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:15 and/or SEQ ID NO:16, e.g. encoded by at least 50, 100, 200 or 300 nucleotides of, or by the full length sequence of one or more of SEQ ID NO:s 13 to 16. In a specific embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a heavy chain constant domain encoded by SEQ ID NO:13, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:15 and SEQ ID NO:16.

In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises a light chain constant domain encoded by at least a portion of SEQ ID NO:17, e.g. encoded by at least 50, 100, 200 or 300 nucleotides of, or by the full length sequence of SEQ ID NO:17.

In one embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises one or more heavy chain CDR sequences selected from GFTFSNYW (SEQ ID NO:18), IRLKSNNFGR (SEQ ID NO:19) and TSYGNYVGHYFDH (SEQ ID NO:20). In another embodiment, the anti-HMW-MAA antibody comprises one or more light chain CDR sequences selected from QNVDTN (SEQ ID NO:21), SAS (SEQ ID NO:22) and QQYNSYPLT (SEQ ID NO:23). Preferably the antibody comprises a heavy chain CDR1 comprising (SEQ ID NO:18), a heavy chain CDR2 comprising (SEQ ID NO:19), a heavy chain CDR3 comprising (SEQ ID NO:20), a light chain CDR1 comprising (SEQ ID NO:21), a light chain CDR2 comprising (SEQ ID NO:22) and/or a light chain CDR3 comprising (SEQ ID NO:23).

In general, functional fragments of the sequences defined above may be used in the present invention. Functional fragments may be of any length as specified above (e.g. at least 50, 100, 300 or 500 nucleotides, or at least 50, 100, 200 or 300 amino acids), provided that the fragment retains the required activity when present in the antibody (e.g. specific binding to HMW-MAA and/or a Fcε receptor).

Variants of the above amino acid and nucleotide sequences may also be used in the present invention, provided that the resulting antibody binds HMW-MAA and a Fcε receptor. Typically such variants have a high degree of sequence identity with one of the sequences specified above.

The similarity between amino acid or nucleotide sequences is expressed in terms of the similarity between the sequences, otherwise referred to as sequence identity. Sequence identity is frequently measured in terms of percentage identity (or similarity or homology); the higher the percentage, the more similar the two sequences are. Homologs or variants of the amino acid or nucleotide sequence will possess a relatively high degree of sequence identity when aligned using standard methods.

Methods of alignment of sequences for comparison are well known in the art. Various programs and alignment algorithms are described in: Smith and Waterman, Adv. Appl. Math. 2:482, 1981; Needleman and Wunsch, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443, 1970; Pearson and Lipman, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85:2444, 1988; Higgins and Sharp, Gene 73:237, 1988; Higgins and Sharp, CABIOS 5:151, 1989; Corpet et al., Nucleic Acids Research 16:10881, 1988; and Pearson and Lipman, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85:2444, 1988. Altschul et al., Nature Genet. 6:119, 1994, presents a detailed consideration of sequence alignment methods and homology calculations.

The NCBI Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) (Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol. 215:403, 1990) is available from several sources, including the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI, Bethesda, Md.) and on the internet, for use in connection with the sequence analysis programs blastp, blastn, blastx, tblastn and tblastx. A description of how to determine sequence identity using this program is available on the NCBI website on the internet.

Homologs and variants of the anti-HMW-MAA antibody or a domain thereof (e.g. a VL, VH, CL or CH domain) typically have at least about 75%, for example at least about 80%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% sequence identity with the original sequence (e.g. a sequence defined above), for example counted over the full length alignment with the amino acid sequence of the antibody or domain thereof using the NCBI Blast 2.0, gapped blastp set to default parameters. For comparisons of amino acid sequences of greater than about 30 amino acids, the Blast 2 sequences function is employed using the default BLOSUM62 matrix set to default parameters, (gap existence cost of 11, and a per residue gap cost of 1). When aligning short peptides (fewer than around 30 amino acids), the alignment should be performed using the Blast 2 sequences function, employing the PAM30 matrix set to default parameters (open gap 9, extension gap 1 penalties). Proteins with even greater similarity to the reference sequences will show increasing percentage identities when assessed by this method, such as at least 80%, at least 85%, at least 90%, at least 95%, at least 98%, or at least 99% sequence identity. When less than the entire sequence is being compared for sequence identity, homologs and variants will typically possess at least 80% sequence identity over short windows of 10-20 amino acids, and may possess sequence identities of at least 85% or at least 90% or 95% depending on their similarity to the reference sequence. Methods for determining sequence identity over such short windows are available at the NCBI website on the internet. One of skill in the art will appreciate that these sequence identity ranges are provided for guidance only; it is entirely possible that strongly significant homologs could be obtained that fall outside of the ranges provided.

Typically variants may contain one or more conservative amino acid substitutions compared to the original amino acid or nucleic acid sequence. Conservative substitutions are those substitutions that do not substantially affect or decrease the affinity of an antibody to HMW-MAA and/or Fcε receptors. For example, a human antibody that specifically binds HMW-MAA may include up to 1, up to 2, up to 5, up to 10, or up to 15 conservative substitutions compared to the original sequence (e.g. as defined above) and retain specific binding to the HMW-MAA polypeptide. The term conservative variation also includes the use of a substituted amino acid in place of an unsubstituted parent amino acid, provided that antibody specifically binds HMW-MAA. Non-conservative substitutions are those that reduce an activity or binding to HMW-MAA and/or Fcε receptors.

Functionally similar amino acids which may be exchanged by way of conservative substitution are well known to one of ordinary skill in the art. The following six groups are examples of amino acids that are considered to be conservative substitutions for one another: 1) Alanine (A), Serine (S), Threonine (T); 2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E); 3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); 4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K); 5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V); and 6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W).

Production of Anti-HMW-MAA Antibodies and Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acid molecules (also referred to as polynucleotides) encoding the polypeptides provided herein (including, but not limited to antibodies and functional fragments thereof) can readily be produced by one of skill in the art, using the amino acid sequences provided herein, sequences available in the art, and the genetic code. In addition, one of skill can readily construct a variety of clones containing functionally equivalent nucleic acids, such as nucleic acids which differ in sequence but which encode the same effector molecule or antibody sequence. Thus, nucleic acids encoding antibodies are provided herein.

Nucleic acid sequences encoding the antibodies that specifically bind HMW-MAA, or functional fragments thereof that specifically bind HMW-MAA, can be prepared by any suitable method including, for example, cloning of appropriate sequences or by direct chemical synthesis by methods such as the phosphotriester method of Narang et al., Meth. Enzymol. 68:90-99, 1979; the phosphodiester method of Brown et al., Meth. Enzymol. 68:109-151, 1979; the diethylphosphoramidite method of Beaucage et al., Tetra. Lett. 22:1859-1862, 1981; the solid phase phosphoramidite triester method described by Beaucage & Caruthers, Tetra. Letts. 22(20):1859-1862, 1981, for example, using an automated synthesizer as described in, for example, Needham-VanDevanter et al., Nucl. Acids Res. 12:6159-6168, 1984; and, the solid support method of U.S. Pat. No. 4,458,066. Chemical synthesis produces a single stranded oligonucleotide. This can be converted into double stranded DNA by hybridization with a complementary sequence or by polymerization with a DNA polymerase using the single strand as a template. One of skill would recognize that while chemical synthesis of DNA is generally limited to sequences of about 100 bases, longer sequences may be obtained by the ligation of shorter sequences.

Exemplary nucleic acids encoding antibodies that specifically bind HMW-MAA, or functional fragments thereof that specifically bind HMW-MAA, can be prepared by cloning techniques. Examples of appropriate cloning and sequencing techniques, and instructions sufficient to direct persons of skill through many cloning exercises are found see, for example, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., vol. 1-3, ed. Sambrook et al., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989); and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (Ausubel et al., eds 1995 supplement)). Product information from manufacturers of biological reagents and experimental equipment also provide useful information. Such manufacturers include the SIGMA Chemical Company (Saint Louis, Mo.), R&D Systems (Minneapolis, Minn.), Pharmacia Amersham (Piscataway, N.J.), CLONTECH Laboratories, Inc. (Palo Alto, Calif.), Chem Genes Corp., Aldrich Chemical Company (Milwaukee, Wis.), Glen Research, Inc., GIBCO BRL Life Technologies, Inc. (Gaithersburg, Md.), Fluka Chemica-Biochemika Analytika (Fluka Chemie AG, Buchs, Switzerland), Invitrogen (Carlsbad, Calif.), and Applied Biosystems (Foster City, Calif.), as well as many other commercial sources known to one of skill.

Nucleic acids encoding native anti-HMW-MAA antibodies can be modified to faun the antibodies described herein. Modification by site-directed mutagenesis is well known in the art. Nucleic acids can also be prepared by amplification methods. Amplification methods include polymerase chain reaction (PCR), the ligase chain reaction (LCR), the transcription-based amplification system (TAS), the self-sustained sequence replication system (3SR). A wide variety of cloning methods, host cells, and in vitro amplification methodologies are well known to persons of skill.

In one embodiment, antibodies are prepared by inserting a cDNA which encodes one or more antibody domains (e.g. a mouse IgG1 heavy chain variable region which binds human HMW-MAA) into a vector which comprises a cDNA encoding one or more further antibody domains (e.g. a human heavy chain c constant region). The insertion is made so that the antibody domains are read in frame, that is in one continuous polypeptide which contains a functional antibody region.

In one embodiment, cDNA encoding a heavy chain constant region is ligated to a heavy chain variable region so that the constant region is located at the carboxyl terminus of the antibody. The heavy chain-variable and/or constant regions can subsequently be ligated to a light chain variable and/or constant region of the antibody using disulfide bonds.

Once the nucleic acids encoding the anti-HMW-MAA antibody or functional fragment thereof have been isolated and cloned, the desired protein can be expressed in a recombinantly engineered cell such as bacteria, plant, yeast, insect and mammalian cells. It is expected that those of skill in the art are knowledgeable in the numerous expression systems available for expression of proteins including E. coli, other bacterial hosts, yeast, and various higher eukaryotic cells such as the COS, CHO, HeLa and myeloma cell lines.

One or more DNA sequences encoding the antibody or fragment thereof can be expressed in vitro by DNA transfer into a suitable host cell. The cell may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic. The term also includes any progeny of the subject host cell. It is understood that all progeny may not be identical to the parental cell since there may be mutations that occur during replication. Methods of stable transfer, meaning that the foreign DNA is continuously maintained in the host, are known in the art. Hybridomas expressing the antibodies of interest are also encompassed by this disclosure.

The expression of nucleic acids encoding the isolated antibodies and antibody fragments described herein can be achieved by operably linking the DNA or cDNA to a promoter (which is either constitutive or inducible), followed by incorporation into an expression cassette. The cassettes can be suitable for replication and integration in either prokaryotes or eukaryotes. Typical expression cassettes contain specific sequences useful for regulation of the expression of the DNA encoding the protein. For example, the expression cassettes can include appropriate promoters, enhancers, transcription and translation terminators, initiation sequences, a start codon (i.e., ATG) in front of a protein-encoding gene, splicing signal for introns, maintenance of the correct reading frame of that gene to permit proper translation of mRNA, and stop codons.

To obtain high level expression of a cloned gene, it is desirable to construct expression cassettes which contain, at the minimum, a strong promoter to direct transcription, a ribosome binding site for translational initiation, and a transcription/translation terminator. For E. coli, this includes a promoter such as the T7, trp, lac, or lambda promoters, a ribosome binding site, and preferably a transcription termination signal. For eukaryotic cells, the control sequences can include a promoter and/or an enhancer derived from, for example, an immunoglobulin gene, SV40 or cytomegalovirus, and a polyadenylation sequence, and can further include splice donor and acceptor sequences. The cassettes can be transferred into the chosen host cell by well-known methods such as transformation or electroporation for E. coli and calcium phosphate treatment, electroporation or lipofection for mammalian cells. Cells transformed by the cassettes can be selected by resistance to antibiotics conferred by genes contained in the cassettes, such as the amp, gpt, neo and hyg genes.

When the host is a eukaryote, such methods of transfection of DNA as calcium phosphate coprecipitates, conventional mechanical procedures such as microinjection, electroporation, insertion of a plasmid encased in liposomes, or virus vectors may be used. Eukaryotic cells can also be co-transformed with polynucleotide sequences encoding the antibody, labelled antibody, or functional fragment thereof, and a second foreign DNA molecule encoding a selectable phenotype, such as the herpes simplex thymidine kinase gene. Another method is to use a eukaryotic viral vector, such as simian virus 40 (SV40) or bovine papilloma virus, to transiently infect or transform eukaryotic cells and express the protein (see for example, Eukaryotic Viral Vectors, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Gluzman ed., 1982). One of skill in the art can readily use an expression systems such as plasmids and vectors of use in producing proteins in cells including higher eukaryotic cells such as the COS, CHO, HeLa and myeloma cell lines.

Modifications can be made to a nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide described herein (i.e., a human HMW-MAA-specific monoclonal antibody) without diminishing its biological activity. Some modifications can be made to facilitate the cloning, expression, or incorporation of the targeting molecule into a fusion protein. Such modifications are well known to those of skill in the art and include, for example, termination codons, a methionine added at the amino terminus to provide an initiation, site, additional amino acids placed on either terminus to create conveniently located restriction sites, or additional amino acids (such as poly His) to aid in purification steps. In addition to recombinant methods, the antibodies of the present disclosure can also be constructed in whole or in part using standard peptide synthesis well known in the art.

Once expressed, the recombinant antibodies can be purified according to standard procedures of the art, including ammonium sulfate precipitation, affinity columns, column chromatography, and the like (see, generally, R. Scopes, PROTEIN PURIFICATION, Springer-Verlag, N.Y., 1982). The antibodies, immunoconjugates and effector molecules need not be 100% pure. Once purified, partially or to homogeneity as desired, if to be used therapeutically, the polypeptides should be substantially free of endotoxin.

Methods for expression of single chain antibodies and/or refolding to an appropriate active form, including single chain antibodies, from bacteria such as E. coli have been described and are well-known and are applicable to the antibodies disclosed herein. See, Buchner et al., Anal. Biochem. 205:263-270, 1992; Pluckthun, Biotechnology 9:545, 1991; Huse et al., Science 246:1275, 1989 and Ward et al., Nature 341:544, 1989.

Often, functional heterologous proteins from E. coli or other bacteria are isolated from inclusion bodies and require solubilization using strong denaturants, and subsequent refolding. During the solubilization step, as is well known in the art, a reducing agent must be present to separate disulfide bonds. An exemplary buffer with a reducing agent is: 0.1 M Tris pH 8, 6 M guanidine, 2 mM EDTA, 0.3 M DTE (dithioerythritol). Reoxidation of the disulfide bonds can occur in the presence of low molecular weight thiol reagents in reduced and oxidized form, as described in Saxena et al., Biochemistry 9: 5015-5021, 1970, and especially as described by Buchner et al., supra.

Renaturation is typically accomplished by dilution (for example, 100-fold) of the denatured and reduced protein into refolding buffer. An exemplary buffer is 0.1 M Tris, pH 8.0, 0.5 M L-arginine, 8 mM oxidized glutathione (GSSG), and 2 mM EDTA.

As a modification to the two chain antibody purification protocol, the heavy and light chain regions are separately solubilized and reduced and then combined in the refolding solution. An exemplary yield is obtained when these two proteins are mixed in a molar ratio such that a 5 fold molar excess of one protein over the other is not exceeded. Excess oxidized glutathione or other oxidizing low molecular weight compounds can be added to the refolding solution after the redox-shuffling is completed.

In addition to recombinant methods, the antibodies, labelled antibodies and functional fragments thereof that are disclosed herein can also be constructed in whole or in part using standard peptide synthesis. Solid phase synthesis of the polypeptides of less than about 50 amino acids in length can be accomplished by attaching the C-terminal amino acid of the sequence to an insoluble support followed by sequential addition of the remaining amino acids in the sequence. Techniques for solid phase synthesis are described by Barany & Merrifield, The Peptides: Analysis, Synthesis, Biology. Vol. 2: Special Methods in Peptide Synthesis, Part A. pp. 3-284; Merrifield et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 85:2149-2156, 1963, and Stewart et al., Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis, 2nd ed., Pierce Chem. Co., Rockford, Ill., 1984. Proteins of greater length may be synthesized by condensation of the amino and carboxyl termini of shorter fragments.

Methods of forming peptide bonds by activation of a carboxyl terminal end (such as by the use of the coupling reagent N,N′-dicylohexylcarbodimide) are well known in the art.

In one embodiment, the antibodies, nucleic acids, expression vectors, host cells or other biological products are isolated. By “isolated” it is meant that the product has been substantially separated or purified away from other biological components in the environment (such as a cell) in which the component naturally occurs, i.e., other chromosomal and extra-chromosomal DNA and RNA, proteins and organelles. Nucleic acids and antibodies that have been “isolated” include nucleic acids and antibodies purified by standard purification methods. The term also embraces nucleic acids and antibodies prepared by recombinant expression in a host cell as well as chemically synthesized nucleic acids.

Immunoconjugates Comprising Anti-HMW-MAA Antibodies

The antibodies, or functional fragments thereof, that specifically bind HMW-MAA can be used in therapeutic methods. In several embodiments, the antibodies or functional fragments thereof described herein can be conjugated to a therapeutic agent. Immunoconjugates include, but are not limited to, molecules in which there is a covalent linkage of a therapeutic agent to an antibody. A therapeutic agent is an agent with a particular biological activity directed against a particular target molecule or a cell bearing a target molecule. One of skill in the art will appreciate that therapeutic agents can include various drugs such as vinblastine, daunomycin and the like, cytotoxins such as native or modified Pseudomonas exotoxin or Diphtheria toxin, encapsulating agents (such as liposomes) which themselves contain pharmacological compositions, radioactive agents such as ¹²⁵I, ³²P, ¹⁴C, ³H and 3⁵S and other labels, target moieties and ligands.

The choice of a particular therapeutic agent depends on the particular target molecule or cell, and the desired biological effect. Thus, for example, the therapeutic agent can be a cytotoxin that is used to bring about the death of a particular target cell. Conversely, where it is desired to invoke a non-lethal biological response, the therapeutic agent can be conjugated to a non-lethal pharmacological agent or a liposome containing a non-lethal pharmacological agent.

With the therapeutic agents and antibodies described herein, one of skill can readily construct a variety of clones containing functionally equivalent nucleic acids, such as nucleic acids which differ in sequence but which encode the same EM or antibody sequence. Thus, the present invention provides nucleic acids encoding antibodies and conjugates and fusion proteins thereof.

Effector molecules can be linked to an antibody of interest using any number of means known to those of skill in the art. Both covalent and noncovalent attachment means may be used. The procedure for attaching an effector molecule to an antibody varies according to the chemical structure of the effector. Polypeptides typically contain a variety of functional groups; such as carboxylic acid (—COOH), free amine (—NH2) or sulfhydryl (—SH) groups, which are available for reaction with a suitable functional group on an antibody to result in the binding of the effector molecule. Alternatively, the antibody is derivatized to expose or attach additional reactive functional groups. The derivatization may involve attachment of any of a number of linker molecules such as those available from Pierce Chemical Company, Rockford, Ill. The linker can be any molecule used to join the antibody to the effector molecule. The linker is capable of forming covalent bonds to both the antibody and to the effector molecule. Suitable linkers are well known to those of skill in the art and include, but are not limited to, straight or branched-chain carbon linkers, heterocyclic carbon linkers, or peptide linkers. Where the antibody and the effector molecule are polypeptides, the linkers may be joined to the constituent amino acids through their side groups (such as through a disulfide linkage to cysteine) or to the alpha carbon amino and carboxyl groups of the terminal amino acids.

In some circumstances, it is desirable to free the effector molecule from the antibody when the immunoconjugate has reached its target site. Therefore, in these circumstances, immunoconjugates will comprise linkages that are cleavable in the vicinity of the target site. Cleavage of the linker to release the effector molecule from the antibody may be prompted by enzymatic activity or conditions to which the immunoconjugate is subjected either inside the target cell or in the vicinity of the target site.

In view of the large number of methods that have been reported for attaching a variety of radiodiagnostic compounds, radiotherapeutic compounds, label (such as enzymes or fluorescent molecules) drugs, toxins, and other agents to antibodies one skilled in the art will be able to determine a suitable method for attaching a given agent to an antibody or other polypeptide.

The antibodies or antibody fragments that specifically bind HMW-MAA disclosed herein can be derivatized or linked to another molecule (such as another peptide or protein). In general, the antibodies or portion thereof is derivatized such that the binding to HMW-MAA is not affected adversely by the derivatization or labeling. For example, the antibody can be functionally linked (by chemical coupling, genetic fusion, noncovalent association or otherwise) to one or more other molecular entities, such as another antibody (for example, a bispecific antibody or a diabody), a detection agent, a pharmaceutical agent, and/or a protein or peptide that can mediate associate of the antibody or antibody portion with another molecule (such as a streptavidin core region or a polyhistidine tag).

One type of derivatized antibody is produced by cross-linking two or more antibodies (of the same type or of different types, such as to create bispecific antibodies). Suitable crosslinkers include those that are heterobifunctional, having two distinctly reactive groups separated by an appropriate spacer (such as m-maleimidobenzoyl-N-hydroxysuccinimide ester) or homobifunctional (such as disuccinimidyl suberate). Such linkers are available from Pierce Chemical Company, Rockford, Ill.

An antibody that specifically binds HMW-MAA or functional fragment thereof can be labeled with a detectable moiety. Useful detection agents include fluorescent compounds, including fluorescein, fluorescein isothiocyanate, rhodamine, 5-dimethylamine-1-napthalenesulfonyl chloride, phycoerythrin, lanthanide phosphors and the like. Bioluminescent markers are also of use, such as luciferase, Green fluorescent protein (GFP), Yellow fluorescent protein (YFP). An antibody can also be labeled with enzymes that are useful for detection, such as horseradish peroxidase, beta -galactosidase, luciferase, alkaline phosphatase, glucose oxidase and the like.

When an antibody is labeled with a detectable enzyme, it can be detected by adding additional reagents that the enzyme uses to produce a reaction product that can be discerned. For example, when the agent horseradish peroxidase is present the addition of hydrogen peroxide and diaminobenzidine leads to a colored reaction product, which is visually detectable. An antibody may also be labeled with biotin, and detected through indirect measurement of avidin or streptavidin binding. It should be noted that the avidin itself can be labeled with an enzyme or a fluorescent label.

An antibody may be labeled with a magnetic agent, such as gadolinium. Antibodies can also be labeled with lanthanides (such as europium and dysprosium), and manganese. Paramagnetic particles such as superparamagnetic iron oxide are also of use as labels. An antibody may also be labeled with a predetermined polypeptide epitopes recognized by a secondary reporter (such as leucine zipper pair sequences, binding sites for secondary antibodies, metal binding domains, epitope tags). In some embodiments, labels are attached by spacer arms of various lengths to reduce potential steric hindrance.

An antibody can also be labeled with a radiolabel, e.g. a radiolabeled amino acid. The radiolabel may be used for both diagnostic and therapeutic purposes. For instance, the radiolabel may be used to detect HMW-MAA by x-ray, emission spectra, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), commuted tomography (CT) scan, positron emission tomography (PET), or other diagnostic techniques. Examples of labels for polypeptides include, but are not limited to, the following radioisotopes or radionucleotides: ³⁵F, ¹¹C, ¹³N, ¹⁵O, ¹⁸F, ¹⁹F, ^(99m)Tc, ¹³¹I, ³H, ¹⁴C, ¹⁵N, ⁹⁰Y, ⁹⁹Tc, ¹¹¹In, and ¹²⁵I.

Labelled antibodies can be used in a variety of immunoassays, including Fluorescence activated cells sorting (FACS), immunohistochemistry, radioimmune assays (RIAs), and enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays (ELISA). Means of detecting such labels are well known to those of skill in the art. Thus, for example, radiolabels may be detected using photographic film or scintillation counters, fluorescent markers may be detected using a photodetector to detect emitted illumination.

An antibody can also be derivatized with a chemical group such as polyethylene glycol (PEG), a methyl or ethyl group, or a carbohydrate group. These groups may be useful to improve the biological characteristics of the antibody, such as to increase serum half-life or to increase tissue binding.

Toxins can be employed with the HMW-MAA-specific antibodies, and functional fragments thereof, that are described herein, to produce immunotoxins. Exemplary toxins include ricin, abrin, diphtheria toxin and subunits thereof, as well as botulinum toxins A through F. These toxins are readily available from commercial sources (for example, Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo.). Contemplated toxins also include variants of the toxins described herein (see, for example, see, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,079,163 and 4,689,401). In one embodiment, the toxin is Pseudomonas exotoxin (PE) (U.S. Pat. No. 5,602,095). As used herein “Pseudomonas exotoxin” refers to a full-length native (naturally occurring) PE or a PE that has been modified. Such modifications can include, but are not limited to, elimination of domain Ia, various amino acid deletions in domains Ib, II and III, single amino acid substitutions and the addition of one or more sequences at the carboxyl terminus (for example, see Siegall et al., J. Biol. Chem. 264:14256-14261, 1989). In one embodiment, the cytotoxic fragment of PE retains at least 50%, at least 75%, at least 90%, or at lest 95% of the cytotoxicity of native PE. In some examples, the cytotoxic fragment is more toxic than native PE.

Native Pseudomonas exotoxin A (PE) is an extremely active monomeric protein (molecular weight 66 kD), secreted by Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which inhibits protein synthesis in eukaryotic cells. The method of PE action is inactivation of the ADP-ribosylation of elongation factor 2 (EF-2). The exotoxin contains three structural domains that act in concert to cause cytotoxicity. Domain 1a mediates cell binding. Domain II is responsible for translocation into the cytosol and domain III mediates ADP ribosylation of elongation factor 2. The function of domain 1b is unknown. PE employed with the monoclonal antibodies described herein can include the native sequence, cytotoxic fragments of the native sequence, and conservatively modified variants of native PE and its cytotoxic fragments. Cytotoxic fragments of PE include those which are cytotoxic with or without subsequent proteolytic or other processing in the target cell. Cytotoxic fragments of PE include PE40, PE38, and PE35. For additional description of PE and variants thereof, see for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,892,827; 5,512,658; 5,602,095; 5,608,039; 5,821,238; and 5,854,044; WO 99/51643; Pai et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:3358-3362, 1991; Kondo et al., J. Biol. Chem. 263:9470-9475, 1988; Pastan et al., Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1333:C1-C6, 1997.

The antibodies and functional fragments thereof described herein can also be used to target any number of different diagnostic or therapeutic compounds to cells expressing HMW-MAA on their surface. Thus, an antibody of the present disclosure can be attached directly or via a linker to a drug that is to be delivered directly to cells expressing cell-surface HMW-MAA. Therapeutic agents include such compounds as nucleic acids, proteins, peptides, amino acids or derivatives, glycoproteins, radioisotopes, lipids, carbohydrates, or recombinant viruses. Nucleic acid therapeutic and diagnostic moieties include antisense nucleic acids, derivatized oligonucleotides for covalent cross-linking with single or duplex DNA, and triplex forming oligonucleotides.

Alternatively, the molecule linked to an anti-HMW-MAA antibody can be an encapsulation system, such as a liposome or micelle that contains a therapeutic composition such as a drug, a nucleic acid (for example, an antisense nucleic acid), or another therapeutic moiety that is preferably shielded from direct exposure to the circulatory system. Means of preparing liposomes attached to antibodies are well known to those of skill in the art (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,957,735; Connor et al., Pharm. Ther. 28:341-365, 1985).

Compositions and Therapeutic Methods

Compositions are provided herein that include a carrier and one or more antibodies that specifically bind HMW-MAA, or functional fragments thereof that specifically binds HMW-MAA. The compositions can be prepared in unit dosage forms for administration to a subject. The amount and timing of administration are at the discretion of the treating physician to achieve the desired purposes. The antibody can be formulated for systemic or local (such as intra-tumour) administration. In one example, the antibody that specifically binds HMW-MAA is formulated for parenteral administration, such as intravenous administration.

The compositions for administration can include a solution of the antibody that specifically binds HMW-MAA (or a functional fragment thereof) dissolved in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, such as an aqueous carrier. A variety of aqueous carriers can be used, for example, buffered saline and the like. These solutions are sterile and generally free of undesirable matter. These compositions may be sterilized by conventional, well known sterilization techniques. The compositions may contain pharmaceutically acceptable auxiliary substances as required to approximate physiological conditions such as pH adjusting and buffering agents, toxicity adjusting agents and the like, for example, sodium acetate, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, sodium lactate and the like. The concentration of antibody in these formulations can vary widely, and will be selected primarily based on fluid volumes, viscosities, body weight and the like in accordance with the particular mode of administration selected and the subject's needs.

A typical dose of the pharmaceutical composition for intravenous administration includes about 0.1 to 15 mg of antibody per kg body weight of the subject per day. Dosages from 0.1 up to about 100 mg per kg per day may be used, particularly if the agent is administered to a secluded site and not into the circulatory or lymph system, such as into a body cavity or into a lumen of an organ. Actual methods for preparing administrable compositions will be known or apparent to those skilled in the art and are described in more detail in such publications as Remington's Pharmaceutical Science, 19th ed., Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa. (1995).

Antibodies may be provided in lyophilized form and rehydrated with sterile water before administration, although they are also provided in sterile solutions of known concentration. The antibody solution is then added to an infusion bag containing 0.9% sodium chloride, USP, and typically administered at a dosage of from 0.5 to 15 mg/kg of body weight. Considerable experience is available in the art in the administration of antibody drugs, which have been marketed in the U.S. since the approval of RITUXAN (Registered trademark) in 1997. Antibodies can be administered by slow infusion, rather than in an intravenous push or bolus. In one example, a higher loading dose is administered, with subsequent, maintenance doses being administered at a lower level. For example, an initial loading dose of 4 mg/kg may be infused over a period of some 90 minutes, followed by weekly maintenance doses for 4-8 weeks of 2 mg/kg infused over a 30 minute period if the previous dose was well tolerated.

The antibody that specifically binds HMW-MAA (or functional fragment thereof) can be administered to slow or inhibit the growth of cells, such as cancer cells. In these applications, a therapeutically effective amount of an antibody is administered to a subject in an amount sufficient to inhibit growth, replication or metastasis of cancer cells, or to inhibit a sign or a symptom of the cancer. In some embodiments, the antibodies are administered to a subject to inhibit or prevent the development of metastasis, or to decrease the size or number of metasases, such as micrometastases, for example micrometastases to the regional lymph nodes (Goto et al., Clin. Cancer Res. 14(11):3401-3407, 2008).

Suitable subjects may include those diagnosed with a cancer that expresses HMW-MAA, such as, but not limited to, melanoma, prostate cancer, squamous cell carcinoma (such as head and neck squamous cell carcinoma), breast cancer (including, but not limited to basal breast carcinoma, ductal carcinoma and lobular breast carcinoma), leukemia (such as acute myelogenous leukemia and 11g23-positive acute leukemia), a neural crest tumour (such as an astrocytoma, glioma or neuroblastoma), ovarian cancer, colon cancer, stomach cancer, pancreatic cancer, bone cancer (such as a chordoma), glioma or a sarcoma (such as chondrosarcoma). Preferably the antibody is administered to treat a solid tumour. More preferably the antibody is administered to a subject suffering from skin cancer, e.g. malignant melanoma.

A therapeutically effective amount of a HMW-MAA-specific antibody will depend upon the severity of the disease and the general state of the patient's health. A therapeutically effective amount of the antibody is that which provides either subjective relief of a symptom(s) or an objectively identifiable improvement as noted by the clinician or other qualified observer. These compositions can be administered in conjunction with another chemotherapeutic agent, either simultaneously or sequentially.

Many chemotherapeutic agents are presently known in the art. In one embodiment, the chemotherapeutic agents is selected from the group consisting of mitotic inhibitors, alkylating agents, anti-metabolites, intercalating antibiotics, growth factor inhibitors, cell cycle inhibitors, enzymes, topoisomerase inhibitors, anti-survival agents, biological response modifiers, anti-hormones, e.g. anti-androgens, and anti-angiogenesis agents.

Anti-angiogenesis agents, such as MMP-2 (matrix-metalloproteinase 2) inhibitors, MMP-9 (matrix-metalloproteinase 9) inhibitors, and COX-II (cyclooxygenase II) inhibitors, can be used in conjunction with a compound of the invention. Examples of useful COX-II inhibitors include CELEBREX (Registered Trademark) (alecoxib), valdecoxib, and rofecoxib. Examples of useful matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors are described in WO 96/33172, WO 96/27583, WO 98/07697, WO 98/03516, WO 98/34918, WO 98/34915, WO 98/33768, WO 98/30566, EP606,046, EP931,788, WO 90/05719, WO 99/52910, WO 99/52889, WO 99/29667, U.S. Pat. No. 5,863,949, U.S. Pat. No. 5,861,510 and EP780,386.

In one example, the MMP inhibitors do not induce arthralgia upon administration. In another example, the MMP inhibitor selectively inhibits MMP-2 and/or MMP-9 relative to the other matrix-metalloproteinases (such as MMP-1, MMP-3, MMP-4, MMP-5, MMP-6, MMP-7, MMP-8, MMP-10, MMP-11, MMP-12, and MMP-13). Some specific examples of MMP inhibitors of use are AG-3340, RO 32-3555, RS 13-0830, 3-[[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-(1-hydroxycarbamoyl-cyclopentyl)-amino]-propionic acid; 3-exo-3-[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-8-oxa-bicyclo[3.2.1]octane-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; (2R,3R) 1-[4-(2-chloro-4-fluoro-benzyloxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-piperidine-2-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; 4-[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-tetrahydro-pyran-4-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; 3-[[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-(1-hydroxycarbamoyl-cyclobutyl)-amino]-propionic acid; 4-[4-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-tetrahydro-pyran-4-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; (R) 3-[[4-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-tetrahydro-pyran-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; (2R,3R) 1-[4-(4-fluoro-2-methyl-benzyloxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-3-hydroxy-3-methyl-piperidine-2-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; 3-[[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-(1-hydroxycarbamoyl-1-methyl-ethyl)-amino]-propionic acid; 3-[[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonyl]-(4-hydroxycarbamoyl-tetrahydro-pyran-4-yl)-amino]-propionic acid; 3-exo-3-[4-(4-chloro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-8-oxaicyclo[3.2.1]octane-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; 3-endo-3-[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-8-oxa-icyclo[3.2.1]octane-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; and (R) 3-[4-(4-fluoro-phenoxy)-benzenesulfonylamino]-tetrahydro-furan-3-carboxylic acid hydroxyamide; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts and solvates of said compounds.

The antibodies that specifically bind HMW-MAA can also be used with signal transduction inhibitors, such as agents that can inhibit EGF-R (epidermal growth factor receptor) responses, such as EGF-R antibodies, EGF antibodies, and molecules that are EGF-R inhibitors; VEGF (vascular endothelial growth factor) inhibitors, such as VEGF receptors and molecules that can inhibit VEGF; and erbB2 receptor inhibitors, such as organic molecules or antibodies that bind to the erbB2 receptor, for example, HERCEPTIN (Registered Trademark) (Genentech, Inc.). EGF-R inhibitors are described in, for example in WO 95/19970, WO 98/14451, WO 98/02434, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,747,498. EGFR-inhibiting agents also include, but are not limited to, the monoclonal antibodies C225 and anti-EGFR 22Mab (ImClone Systems Incorporated), ABX-EGF (Abgenix/Cell Genesys), EMD-7200 (Merck KgaA), EMD-5590 (Merck KgaA), MDX-447/H-477 (Medarex Inc. and Merck KgaA), and the compounds ZD-1834, ZD-1838 and ZD-1839 (AstraZeneca), PKI-166 (Novartis), PKI-166/CGP-75166 (Novartis), PTK 787 (Novartis), CP 701 (Cephalon), leflunomide (Pharmacia/Sugen), CI-1033 (Warner Lambert Parke Davis), CI-1033/PD 183,805 (Warner Lambert Parke Davis), CL-387,785 (Wyeth-Ayerst), BBR-1611 (Boehringer Mannheim GmbH/Roche), Naamidine A (Bristol Myers Squibb), RC-3940-II (Pharmacia), BIBX-1382 (Boehringer Ingelheim), OLX-103 (Merck & Co.), VRCTC-310 (Ventech Research), EGF fusion toxin (Seragen Inc.), DAB-389 (Seragen/Lilgand), ZM-252808 (Imperial Cancer Research Fund), RG-50864 (INSERM), LFM-A12 (Parker Hughes Cancer Center), WH1-P97 (Parker Hughes Cancer Center), GW-282974 (Glaxo), KT-8391 (Kyowa Hakko) and EGF-R Vaccine (York Medical/Centro de Immunologia Molecular (CIM)).

VEGF inhibitors, for example SU-5416 and SU-6668 (Sugen Inc.), SH-268 (Schering), and NX-1838 (NeXstar) can also be used in conjunction with an antibody that specifically binds HMW-MAA. VEGF inhibitors are described in, for example in WO 99/24440, WO 95/21613, WO 99/61422, U.S. Pat. No. 5,834,504, WO 98/50356, U.S. Pat. No. 5,883,113, U.S. Pat. No. 5,886,020, U.S. Pat. No. 5,792,783, WO 99/10349, WO 97/32856, WO 97/22596, WO 98/54093, WO 98/02438, WO 99/16755 and WO 98/02437. Other examples of some specific VEGF inhibitors are IM862 (Cytran Inc.); anti-VEGF monoclonal antibody of Genentech, Inc.; and angiozyme, a synthetic ribozyme from Ribozyme and Chiron. These and other VEGF inhibitors can be used in conjunction with an antibody that specifically binds HMW-MAA.

ErbB2 receptor inhibitors, such as GW-282974 (Glaxo Wellcome plc), and the monoclonal antibodies AR-209 (Aronex Pharmaceuticals Inc.) and 2B-1 (Chiron), can furthermore be combined with the compound of the invention, for example those indicated in WO 98/02434, WO 99/35146, WO 99/35132, WO 98/02437, WO 97/13760, WO 95/19970, U.S. Pat. No. 5,587,458 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,877,305.

For the treatment of cancer, such as melanoma, the antibodies disclosed herein can be used with surgical treatment, or with another therapeutic including dacarbazine (also termed DTIC), or interleukin-2 (IL-2) or interferon, such as interferon-α2b (IFN-α2b), or bisphosphonates, such as zoledronate. For the treatment of a superficial melanoma, the antibodies can be used in conjunction with Imiquimod. For treatment of prostate cancer, the antibodies can be used in conjunction with, for example, surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy and hormonal therapy (such as anti-androgens or GnRH antagonists). For the treatment of HNSCC, the antibodies provided herein can be used in conjunction with surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, other antibodies (such as cetuximab and bevacizumab) or small-molecule therapeutics (such as erlotinib).

Single or multiple administrations of the compositions are administered depending on the dosage and frequency as required and tolerated by the patient. In any event, the composition should provide a sufficient quantity of at least one of the antibodies (or functional fragments thereof) disclosed herein to effectively treat the patient. The dosage can be administered once but may be applied periodically until either a therapeutic result is achieved or until side effects warrant discontinuation of therapy. In one example, a dose of the antibody is infused for thirty minutes every other day. In this example, about one to about ten doses can be administered, such as three or six doses can be administered every other day. In a further example, a continuous infusion is administered for about five to about ten days. The subject can be treated at regular intervals, such as monthly, until a desired therapeutic result is achieved. Generally, the dose is sufficient to treat or ameliorate symptoms or signs of disease without producing unacceptable toxicity to the patient.

Controlled release parenteral formulations can be made as implants, oily injections, or as particulate systems. For a broad overview of protein delivery systems see, Banga, A. J., Therapeutic Peptides and Proteins: Formulation, Processing, and Delivery Systems, Technomic Publishing Company, Inc., Lancaster, Pa., (1995). Particulate systems include microspheres, microparticles, microcapsules, nanocapsules, nanospheres, and nanoparticles. Microcapsules contain the therapeutic protein, such as a cytotoxin or a drug, as a central core. In microspheres the therapeutic is dispersed throughout the particle. Particles, microspheres, and microcapsules smaller than about 1 μm are generally referred to as nanoparticles, nanospheres, and nanocapsules, respectively. Capillaries have a diameter of approximately 5 μm so that only nanoparticles are administered intravenously. Microparticles are typically around 100 μm in diameter and are administered subcutaneously or intramuscularly. See, for example, Kreuter, J., Colloidal Drug Delivery Systems, J. Kreuter, ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, N.Y., pp. 219-342 (1994); and Tice & Tabibi, Treatise on Controlled Drug Delivery, A. Kydonieus, ed., Marcel Dekker, Inc. New York, N.Y., pp. 315-339, (1992).

Polymers can be used for ion-controlled release of the antibody compositions disclosed herein. Various degradable and nondegradable polymeric matrices for use in controlled drug delivery are known in the art (Langer, Accounts Chem. Res. 26:537-542, 1993). For example, the block copolymer, polaxamer 407, exists as a viscous yet mobile liquid at low temperatures but forms a semisolid gel at body temperature. It has been shown to be an effective vehicle for formulation and sustained delivery of recombinant interleukin-2 and urease (Johnston et al., Pharm. Res. 9:425-434, 1992; and Pec et al., J. Parent. Sci. Tech. 44(2):58-65, 1990). Alternatively, hydroxyapatite has been used as a microcarrier for controlled release of proteins (Ijntema et al., Int. J. Pharm. 112:215-224, 1994). In yet another aspect, liposomes are used for controlled release as well as drug targeting of the lipid-capsulated drug (Betageri et al., Liposome Drug Delivery Systems, Technomic Publishing Co., Inc., Lancaster, Pa. (1993)). Numerous additional systems for controlled delivery of therapeutic proteins are known (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,055,303; U.S. Pat. No. 5,188,837; U.S. Pat. No. 4,235,871; U.S. Pat. No. 4,501,728; U.S. Pat. No. 4,837,028; U.S. Pat. No. 4,957,735; U.S. Pat. No. 5,019,369; U.S. Pat. No. 5,055,303; U.S. Pat. No. 5,514,670; U.S. Pat. No. 5,413,797; U.S. Pat. No. 5,268,164; U.S. Pat. No. 5,004,697; U.S. Pat. No. 4,902,505; U.S. Pat. No. 5,506,206; U.S. Pat. No. 5,271,961; U.S. Pat. No. 5,254,342 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,534,496).

Relative Therapeutic Efficacy of IgE and IgG Antibodies Against a Melanoma-Associated Antigen

Therapeutic antibodies now complement conventional treatments of some malignant diseases and have improved prognosis for many cancer patients. More than half of antibodies are approved for the treatment of blood malignancies, but antibody treatments of solid, non-haematopoietic, tumours are urgently needed.

IgG is the only antibody class examined in the immunotherapy of cancer. Poor tissue penetration of IgG antibodies and low affinity of IgGs for their receptors on immune cells may partly account for the weak immune responses observed and resulting poor performance of many IgG antibodies against solid tumours.

IgE class antibodies play a major role in the human allergic response, but are also key contributors to the body's defence against parasitic infections. IgE antibodies naturally reside in tissues. They can be transported from the circulation into tissues, where, through their strong affinity for their receptors on immune cells, they are known to trigger powerful immune responses.

In embodiments of the present invention, the antibody is directed against the cell surface melanoma antigen HMW-MAA (high molecular weight melanoma associated antigen), which is over-expressed by >80% of melanomas, as a target for antibody immunotherapy. As demonstrated in the Example below, two chimaeric monoclonal antibodies (one IgG and one IgE) of the same specificity against HMW-MAA (each comprising the same variable region sequences of a mouse antibody) had differential effects in vivo. Due to differential immune effector cell-mediated melanoma tumour killing by each antibody, the IgE antibody had superior efficacy in an in vivo xenograft model of melanoma.

It has been surprisingly demonstrated herein that engineering antibodies with Fc regions of a different antibody class can improve antibody effector functions, if antibodies of this class can exert natural immune surveillance in anatomical locations where tumours may be found. This concept may be particularly relevant in the case of solid tumours, since these are frequently refractory to treatment with IgG antibodies. With a serum half-life of 21-24 days, compared to a half-life of 2-3 days in tissues, IgG antibodies may be the most effective antibody class to target blood-resident tumours and circulating tumour cells, while their ability to exert tumour surveillance in tissues may be less potent [18, 19]. Other parameters that may modulate IgG anti-tumoural functions could be slow or ineffective recruitment and/or local suppression of activator immune effector cells by tumour cells in lesions and the presence/induction of immunoregulatory cells by tumours in situ [20]. For antibodies of the IgG class that do localise in tumour lesions, overcoming these immunomodulatory environments may be challenging. Additionally, factors such as the low affinity of IgG for its Fc gamma receptors and the presence of the inhibitory receptor FcγRIIb in tumour-infiltrating immune cells such as macrophages may negatively influence the efficacy of IgG antibodies in tissues [21, 22].

Since each antibody class operates in different anatomic compartments, and functions through unique Fc-receptors and immune effector cells, we have focused on antibodies of the IgE class, commonly known for their role in the allergic response and parasite protection. Antibodies of this class function through their specific high-affinity Fc receptors on a different spectrum of effector cells to IgG, and naturally reside in tissues where they exert immunological surveillance. The results shown herein demonstrate that these properties may translate to superior efficacy in targeting tissue-resident tumours such as melanoma.

Advantages of IgE as an Antibody Therapy for the Treatment of Solid Tumours Tissue Residency:

The concentration of IgE in the serum of normal individuals is minute (<150 ng/ml, i.e. 1/10,000 the concentration of IgG), and unlike IgG, the presence of IgE in the blood is short-lived (half-life of 1.5 days) [23, 24, 19]. Yet, IgE is sequestered in tissues and retained locally by powerful IgE receptor-expressing resident cells such as mast cells, macrophages and dendritic cells with a measured half-life of two weeks, proportionately longer than that of IgG (2-3 days) [24, 18].

High Affinity for IgE Receptors:

The affinity of IgE for its high-affinity receptor, FcεR1, (K_(a)=10¹¹M⁻¹) is 10²-10⁵ times higher than that of IgGs for their receptors, making it the only antibody strongly retained by effector cells in the absence of antigen [23, 25, 19]. The slow dissociation of the IgE-FcεR1 complex and local retention of IgE in tissues may translate to lower effective therapeutic doses and/or reduced frequency of administration compared to IgG.

Lack of Inhibitory Receptor:

Unlike IgG, IgE is subject to no inhibitory receptor (cf. FcγRIIb), with the potential implication that the suppressive properties of tumour microenvironments may not bear as heavily on tumour-specific IgE effector functions against tissue resident tumours.

Tissue Resident Immune Effector Cells in Tumours:

A large proportion, as much as 50%, of tumour lesions are made up of infiltrating immune cells which are also concentrated round the tumours [26]. Some of these infiltrates are known powerful FcεR-expressing effector cells such as monocytes/macrophages, mast cells, dendritic cells and eosinophils. In the absence of tumour antigen-specific IgE, these cells may lack the required activity to target tumour cells due to immunosuppressive signals in the tumour microenvironment [27, 28].

Powerful Effector Functions:

IgE is extremely potent in recruiting and activating effector cells (T cells, monocytes, eosinophils, basophils) to the site of antigen challenge, through release of cytokines (IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-9, IL-13, GM-CSF and TNF-α), and also in activating these cells in situ. Mediators released by mast cells (histamine, leukotrienes and proteases) promote further recruitment and activation of blood effector cells [29]. In the context of their protective role in parasitic infections, IgE antibodies are known to trigger both antibody-mediated cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), and antibody-mediated cellular phagocytosis of parasites [30-34]. Both IgE receptors are up-regulated by IgE and IL-4 on effector cells in situ, and are known to participate in these mechanisms of action.

These properties of IgE antibodies may be redirected to enhance cytotoxicity and phagocytosis of tumour cells, as well as initiate IgE antibody-dependent antigen presentation by IgE receptor-bearing antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells, B cells and macrophages. Thus, passive and active immunity against solid tumours could act in conjunction in tissues such as skin, naturally populated by IgE effector cells. The strength of IgE-mediated immune responses in tissues, then, carries the expectation of increased potency as well as longevity of immune surveillance by IgE and effector cells against skin tumours.

HMW-MAA is a Suitable Target for Antibody Immunotherapy

We have identified the high-molecular-weight melanoma-associated antigen (HMW-MAA) as an appropriate target for antibody immunotherapy. A cell surface chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan HMW-MAA is expressed by >80% of melanoma lesions, but not normal melanocytes. Its restricted distribution in normal tissues is well-documented (basal cells of the epidermis, epidermal and hair follicle progenitors, chondrocytes). Expression in primary and metastatic lesions and limited heterogeneity across tumours potentially render it a highly suitable therapeutic target [35]. Its presence in activated pericytes in tumour-associated angiogenic vasculature suggests a role in regulating and promoting tumour angiogenesis [36]. This could offer an additional advantage for antibody therapy, not only in targeting HMW-MAA-expressing tumour cells, but also in restricting angiogenesis and reducing tumour cell growth and migration. HMW-MAA enhances motility, migration and the metastatic capacity of melanoma cells by enhancing interactions with the extracellular matrix. It may also act as an auxiliary growth factor and has a role in melanoma cell proliferation. This gives the hope of preferential elimination of the more aggressive—that is to say, most proliferative and metastatic—HMW-MAA-expressing melanoma cells by specific antibodies. Pre-clinical and clinical studies have studied the efficacy of HMW-MAA-directed immunotherapy of melanoma. However, it has been suggested that mouse antibodies to HMW-MAA do not function by immunological mechanisms in vitro and in animal models [37], thus efforts to engineer derivatives that may trigger human Fc-expressing effector cell functions (i.e. cloning with human Fc regions) have not been disclosed.

mAb 225.28s: a Monoclonal Antibody Against HMW-MAA

In one embodiment, the antibody comprises an antigen-binding region derived from mAb 225.28s. The 225.28s monoclonal antibody is directed against HMW-MAA, and was developed in Prof. Soldano Ferrone's laboratory (now at University of Pittsburg, USA). The variable region sequences were published in 1996 by Neri et al, and the original mouse clone was made in a hybridoma format [38]. It has been established that the antibody binds with high affinity and high specificity to an epitope on the target protein, and that it is univalent—a requirement for safety in the context of an IgE therapeutic, as explained above. The efficacy of this clone was tested in a number of in vitro and in vivo models [39, 40].

Early in vitro studies indicate that the mouse 225.28s antibody clone provokes, though only weakly, both complement and cell-mediated melanoma cell toxicity. The evidence in fact suggests that the main mechanisms by which antibodies such as 225.28s developed against HMW MAA work are not immunological, for they are associated with reduced proliferation and neovascularisation, restriction of cell migration and metastasis. These mechanisms have recently been reported in the context of triple-negative breast cancer cells which express the antigen. Further studies have demonstrated the ability of the mouse 225.28s IgG antibody to suppress melanoma tumour growth in a human xenograft grown s.c. in SCID mice. Although the mechanisms of its function were not fully analysed, it was conceded by the authors that the restricted access of these (IgG class) antibodies to solid tissues was a likely explanation for the modest extent of tumour regressions observed. In a different model, the mouse IgG coupled to methotrexate, was active in targeting and inhibiting growth of a human melanoma xenograft, grown s.c. in nude mice. A toxin-conjugated derivative of 225.28s has reached clinical testing, and scFv derivatives have been designed [41, 42].

However, to-date, a molecule of this specificity has not been engineered into a chimaeric or humanised recombinant form. The mouse antibody clone suffers from two obvious disadvantages: a) mouse sequences are expected to induce HAMA (human anti-murine antibody) responses in patients, resulting in neutralisation of the antibody and rapid clearance from the circulation, thereby significantly reducing any efficacy against tumour cells, and b) an antibody with Fc regions of mouse origin is not expected to effectively recruit FcR-expressing human immune effector cells which may target and kill tumour cells by mechanisms such as cytotoxicity and/or phagocytosis. Therefore the potential therapeutic relevance of a recombinant agent with this specificity has not previously been proposed. Therefore as described in the Example below; we conducted a direct comparison, based on chimaeric 225.28s antibodies of different classes, IgG1 and IgE, and examine their potential efficacy in the treatment of melanoma.

The invention will now be further described with reference to the following non-limiting example.

EXAMPLE Engineering of Melanoma Antigen-Specific Antibodies Engineering and Characterization of Chimaeric IgE and IgG1 Antibodies Recognising the HMW-MAA Antigen

The system for expression cloning used in the present study allows production of antibodies of any class within a few weeks (see FIG. 1). Nucleotide sequences encoding the heavy and light chain variable regions of murine antibody clone 225.28s (see FIGS. 12 to 15, SEQ ID NO:s 3 to 6) were codon-optimised for expression in humans. The human codon-optimised sequences (shown in FIGS. 20 and 21, SEQ ID NO:s 11 and 12) were inserted into the human IgG1 and IgE heavy and kappa light chain vectors (comprising human IgG1 and IgE heavy and kappa light chain constant regions). The nucleotide sequence encoding the IgE heavy chain constant region is shown in FIG. 22 (SEQ ID NO:s 13 to 16) and the sequence encoding the kappa light chain constant region is shown in FIG. 23 (SEQ ID NO: 17). The heavy and light chain amino acid and nucleotide sequences of the resultant chimeric IgE antibody are shown in FIGS. 16 to 19 (SEQ ID NO:s 7 to 10). The vectors comprising the chimaeric sequences were used to transfect HEK297 cells with production efficiencies of up to 15-20 mg per litre of supernatant.

The antibodies were purified by routine methods previously published [43-47]. The biophysical properties of engineered chimaeric antibodies are routinely tested by gel electrophoresis and by HPLC size-exclusion chromatography analysis, and compared to previously tested MOv18 IgG1 and IgE antibodies raised against FRα, and also to clinical-grade Trastuzumab (Herceptin®, IgG1) (FIG. 2), to ascertain product quality and purity.

The interactions of anti-HMW-MAA antibodies with A375 melanoma tumour cells were analysed by flow cytometry and immunofluoresence. Anti-HMW-MAA IgE recognized the HMW-MAA antigen on A375 cells (99.81%), but did not bind human primary melanocytes. The IgE antibody also bound to FcεR-expressing human primary monocytes and cells of the monocytic cell line U937, which also express both IgE receptors, FcεRI and FcεRII at low densities (FIG. 3). The IgG1 antibody bound to the surface of A375 melanoma cells and U937 monocytic cells (FIG. 3C). Specific binding of the chimaeric IgE and IgG1 antibodies to the surface of the A375 tumour cells was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy, while a hapten specific isotype control IgE antibody (NIP IgE) and a human IgG₁ antibody control did not show binding above background (FIG. 4). Therefore, both chimaeric antibodies of known specificity could be engineered that recognised the expected tumour target and immune effector cells.

In Vitro Functional Assays

We employed a number of in vitro assays to examine the capacity of the engineered antibodies to target and kill tumour cells, namely Fc receptor-mediated effector cell activation assays such as functional degranulation and ADCC/ADCP assays, and cell viability assays (MTT) to study the potential to directly kill tumour cells through antigen recognition. We observed that:

-   -   1) In a functional degranulation assay measuring %         β-hexosaminidase release by RBL SX-38 rat basophilic leukaemia         cells expressing human FcεRI, the HMW-MAA IgE antibody alone did         not potentiate β-hexosaminidase release (0.6%). However, the         antibody induced significant degranulation of RBL SX-38 cells         following stimulation with a polyclonal anti-human IgE antibody         (FIG. 5), demonstrating the ability of this antibody to activate         immune effector cells through engagement of its high affinity         receptor.     -   2) In vitro cell viability (MIT) assays demonstrated that unlike         trastuzumab (IgE and IgG1) antibodies, and as previously         reported for the mouse IgG antibody of the same specificity,         neither anti-HMW-MAA chimaeric IgE nor the IgG1 counterpart         exerted any direct effects on cell proliferation (FIG. 5).     -   3) Both antibodies were capable of activating immune effector         cells to kill cancer cells in vitro with similar effectiveness,         but each by different mechanisms: the chimaeric IgG1 activated         human monocytes to kill tumour cells by ADCP, while the IgE         mediated ADCC of tumour cells (FIG. 6).         Studies of Efficacy in a Human Melanoma Xenograft Model in         NOD/SCID γ^(−/−) Mice Engrafted with Human Immune Effector Cells

Studies to assess the ability of the melanoma antigen-specific chimaeric antibodies to restrict tumour growth in vivo were conducted in an immunodeficient mouse model of human melanoma grown subcutaneously in NOD/SCID γ^(−/−) mice of BALB/c background. Human immune effector cells administered in this model in the form of PBLs, reproducibly demonstrate over 40% spleen engraftment in mice, rendering this in vivo system equivalent to a humanised phenotype. A tumour cell challenge of 5×10⁵ melanoma cells per mouse resulted in reproducible tumour growth over a period of ˜4 weeks, and lesions were positive for the HMW-MAA antigen (FIG. 7).

Using this subcutaneous in vivo model of melanoma and engraftment of human immune effector cells in these mice, treatment with weekly doses of IgE (10 mg/kg) resulted in severely-restricted melanoma tumour growth over a period of 30 days compared to those treated with the corresponding chimaeric IgG1 at the same doses and to those given non-specific antibody controls (n=7, FIG. 8). Therefore, despite similar levels of tumour cell killing efficiencies in vitro, we observed improved efficacy for anti-HMW-MAA IgE compared to the corresponding IgG1 of the same specificity in vivo.

We also observed profound human immune cell infiltration and the presence of human IgE in tumour lesions from mice that received the anti-HMW-MAA IgE antibody, but neither human immune cell infiltration nor IgE antibody localisation were detected in lesions from animals treated with the non-specific chimaeric IgE antibody MOv18 IgE. We therefore concluded that treatment with melanoma antigen-specific IgE antibody was superior in inducing tumour growth restriction in vivo compared to the corresponding IgG1. Furthermore, systemic treatment with tumour antigen-specific IgE was associated with strong localisation of IgE and infiltration of human immune effector cells in tumour lesions in an antigen-specific manner.

In conclusion, antibodies of different classes and different specificities may have different functional properties against cancer cells, by activating different families of Fc receptors on immune effector cells to destroy tumours. In the context of melanoma, these studies indicate that an IgE antibody against a melanoma antigen has superior efficacy compared to the corresponding IgG1, which may relate to activation and/or recruitment of FcεR immune effector cells in a mouse xenograft model of melanoma.

All publications mentioned in the above specification are herein incorporated by reference. Various modifications and variations of the described methods and system of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art without departing from the scope and spirit of the present invention. Although the present invention has been described in connection with specific preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the invention as claimed should not be unduly limited to such specific embodiments. Indeed, various modifications of the described modes for carrying out the invention which are obvious to those skilled in biochemistry and biotechnology or related fields are intended to be within the scope of the following claims.

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1. An antibody or a functional fragment thereof, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof is capable of: (a) binding specifically to high molecular weight melanoma associated antigen (HMW-MAA); and (b) binding to an Fcε receptor.
 2. An antibody or functional fragment thereof according to claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof is of the isotype IgE.
 3. The antibody or functional fragment thereof according of claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof comprises one or more variable regions capable of binding specifically to HMW-MAA, and one or more constant regions capable of binding to an Fcε receptor.
 4. (canceled)
 5. (canceled)
 6. (canceled)
 7. The antibody or functional fragment thereof according to claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof comprises one or more complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) derived from an immunoglobulin isotype other than IgE, and one or more framework regions and one or more constant domains derived from an immunoglobulin of the isotype IgE.
 8. The antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 7, wherein the CDRs are derived from a first mammalian species, and the framework regions or constant domains are derived from a second mammalian species different to the first mammalian species.
 9. The antibody or functional fragment thereof according to claim 8, wherein the CDRs are derived from a non-human species, and the framework regions or constant domains are derived from a human.
 10. The antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 7, wherein the CDRs are derived from a human, and the framework regions or constant domains are derived from a human.
 11. The antibody or functional fragment of claim 1, comprising one or more heavy chain constant domains selected from the group consisting of Cε1, Cε2, Cε3 and Cε4.
 12. The antibody of functional fragment thereof of claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof comprises an ε heavy chain.
 13. The antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof comprises one or more variable domains or complementarity-determining regions (CDRs) derived from an IgG.
 14. The antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 1, wherein the antibody is conjugated to a detectable label, a therapeutic agent, a cytotoxin, an encapsulating agent or a radioactive moiety.
 15. The antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof comprises one or more heavy chain CDR sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO: 18, SEQ ID NO: 19 and SEQ ID NO:20, and one or more light chain CDR sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NO:21, SEQ ID NO:22 and SEQ ID NO:23.
 16. The antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof comprises (i) a VH domain encoded by a nucleotide sequence comprising SEQ ID NO: 3 or SEQ ID NO: 11 or a functional fragment or variant thereof, (ii) a VH domain comprising SEQ ID NO:4 or a functional fragment or variant thereof, (iii) a VL domain encoded by a nucleotide sequence comprising SEQ ID NO: 5 or SEQ ID NO: 12 or a functional fragment or variant thereof, or (iv) a VL domain comprising SEQ ID NO: 6 or a functional fragment or variant thereof.
 17. (canceled)
 18. The antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof comprises (i) a heavy chain encoded by a nucleotide sequence comprising SEQ ID NO: 9, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, (ii) a heavy chain comprising the amino acid sequence as defined in SEQ ID NO:7, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, (iii) a light chain encoded by a nucleotide sequence comprising SEQ ID NO: 10, or a functional fragment or variant thereof, or (iv) a light chain comprising the amino acid sequence as defined in SEQ ID NO: 8, or a functional fragment or variant thereof.
 19. (canceled)
 20. The antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 1, wherein the antibody or functional fragment thereof comprises (i) one or more heavy chain constant domains encoded by SEQ ID NO:13, SEQ ID NO:14, SEQ ID NO:15 or SEQ ID NO:16, or one or more functional fragment or variants thereof, (ii) a light chain constant domain encoded by SEQ ID NO: 17, or a functional fragment or variant thereof.
 21. (canceled)
 22. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 1, and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 23. A method of treating cancer in a subject, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of claim 22, wherein the cancer is malignant melanoma, skin cancer, breast cancer, head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, prostate cancer, ovarian cancer, colon cancer, glioma, stomach cancer or pancreatic cancer.
 24. (canceled)
 25. (canceled)
 26. The method of claim 23, wherein the cancer expresses HMW-MAA.
 27. (canceled)
 28. (canceled)
 29. A nucleic acid molecule which encodes the antibody or functional fragment thereof of claim 1, or a heavy chain or light chain thereof.
 30. (canceled)
 31. A host cell transformed with the nucleic acid of claim
 29. 